Life and Science

Bioaccumulation of Microplastics: From Environmental Pollutants to Multisystemic Toxicity in Humans

Wasim Alamgir, Hina Shan — Thu, 05 Jun 2025 10:43:01 +0500

Plastic products are ubiquitous, and their tendency to break down into smaller pieces has led to their extensive
distribution through oceans, terrestrial environments, and atmospheric winds. Microplastics are plastic
particles ranging in size from 5 millimeters to 1 micrometre, while nanoplastics are smaller, typically measuring
under 1,000 nanometres. The continuous shredding of larger plastic debris into smaller pieces has resulted in
significant and persistent environmental pollution. The projected rise in microplastics as contaminants due to
their widespread presence across ecosystems and living organisms has attracted increasing scientific and
societal attention. Microplastics have already been found in plant life, animal species, and human tissues.¹

The release of microplastics and nanoplastics into the air as they fragment in the environment is a concern, as is
their human exposure via digestive ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. In 2022, researchers compared
two modes of human exposure to microplastics: microplastic exposure from seafood consumption and inhaling
plastic fibres through breathing air at home. Invisible plastic fibres shed by upholstery or clothing were
identified as a greater threat to human exposure than seafood consumption.^1-3 The microplastics, as airborne
particles, with their potential to penetrate human tissues, raise the question of what effect, if any, they have on
human health.

In 2022, plastic particles were reported in the lungs and blood of living humans.^3-4 The presence of micro- and
nanoplastics in human blood implies systemic distribution, with the potential for these particles to reach
organs and tissues throughout the body. Chronic exposure to microplastics and their long-term physiological
effects are emerging as potential risk factors for multisystemic adverse outcomes. Both particles have been
reported to interact and trigger toxicological effects, including dysbiosis in the gut and oxidative stress,
inflammatory, and immune responses in human tissue. A recent study from the University of New Mexico has
found up to 10 times higher concentrations of microplastics in the human brain among individuals with
dementia than in those without the condition.² Using electron microscopy and chemical analysis, researchers
discovered nanoparticles, mainly polyethylene, in brain tissue samples, and surprisingly, microplastic
bioaccumulation is more concentrated in the brain than in the liver or kidneys, possibly due to damage to the
blood-brain barrier.^2-4 Although causation has not been confirmed, scientists warn of micro- and nanoplastics'
role in exacerbating neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and prion disease, through
mechanisms involving oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, protein aggregation,
and impaired brain waste removal systems, such as the glymphatic system.^2-4 A recent cardiac study highlighted that two plastic types were consistently found in atherosclerotic plaque samples: polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy.⁴ Researchers suggest that
physicochemical differences, such as molecular weight, polarity, and shape, may make these plastics more
likely to accumulate in vascular tissues and contribute to inflammation, potentially leading to a higher
incidence of major cardiovascular events.⁴ Animal studies have shown that microplastics can induce
cardiovascular toxicity, including promoting thrombosis, impeding angiogenesis, and causing structural cardiac
issues; however, the levels used in animal experiments were significantly higher than those observed in human
samples, limiting a direct comparison.^4,5 Although current findings are primarily derived from observational
studies and do not establish definitive causal relationships, a growing body of evidence suggests associations
between microplastic exposure and impacts on human health. While further mechanistic and longitudinal
studies are necessary to clarify the nature and extent of these effects, in light of emerging evidence, adopting a
precautionary approach to reducing plastic exposure is crucial.

Reducing microplastic exposure requires minimizing single-use plastics, improving waste management
systems, and promoting sustainable product alternatives. The healthcare sector must protect public health by
prioritizing education, supporting continued research, fostering greater public and policy awareness, driving
behavioural change, promoting sustainable choices, and advocating for stronger regulations to reduce plastic
production and usage, thereby minimizing microplastic contamination in food systems and the environment.

Editor-in-Chief

How to cite this: Alamgir W, Shan H. Bioaccumulation of Microplastics: From Environmental Pollutants to Multisystemic Toxicity in Humans. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 154-155. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.946

Evaluation of Reticulin Fibrosis in Benign Hematologic Disorders in Lahore, Pakistan: A Cross-Sectional Study

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To assess reticulin fibrosis in benign hematologic disorders and to understand the impact of benign
hematologic disorders on the immune system.
Study Design: Cross-sectional study.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Department of Hematology, Sheikh Zayed
Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan from January 2023 to June 2023.
Methods: Patients who had benign hematologic disorders, such as iron deficiency anemia, Megaloblastic
Anemia, Aplastic Anemia, and Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura, were included in the research. Patients
with Malignant hematologic disorders and Individuals undergoing chemotherapy for any malignant disease
were excluded. There were 96 cases total in the sample, 24 for each illness. Following processing in the histology department, the data for reticulin fibers were analyzed using bone marrow samples from the anterior
iliac spine. An institutional ethics panel approved the research, and informed consent was acquired.
Results: The study found that the gender distribution of cases was significantly different among the four
groups. The average age of cases was not different among the four groups. Still, the Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura group had the lowest average age of 40.5 years, and the Aplastic anemia group had the highest average age of 46.7 years. Among the hematological parameters, the hemoglobin level was the highest among the Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura group, with an average of 10.8±1.9 g/dl. The median total leukocyte count for Iron Deficiency Anemia was 6.3, while the median total leukocyte count for megaloblastic anemia was 3.2, Aplastic Anemia was 1.8, and Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura was 8.0. The median RDW count for Iron Deficiency Anemia was 42.0, Megaloblastic Anemia was 50.0, Aplastic Anemia was 48.5, and ITP was 48.0.
Conclusion: The study concluded that female gender, higher Hemoglobin level, higher MCH, Red blood cell
count, and lower platelet count may also help support the diagnosis of Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura.
Identifying these parameters as diagnostic markers requires further research to confirm their status.

How to cite this: Shabbir Y, Farooq N, Akhter F, Virk AA, Fayyaz M, Eyyaz M. Evaluation of Reticulin Fibrosis in Benign Hematologic Disorders in Lahore, Pakistan: A Cross-Sectional Study. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 156-162. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.578

Morphometric Analysis and Variations of the Hard Palate in Human Dry Skulls: A Cross-Sectional Study from the Punjab Region, Pakistan

Yasmeen Bashir, Hammad Ayyaz, Tayyaba Mahmud, Sadia Hassan, Lubna Shahpar — Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: This study aims to measure and analyze the morphometric parameters of the hard palate in human
dry skulls, including length, width, height, palatine, and height indices, and categorize the anatomical variations
observed in the hard palate in the Punjab region.
Study Design: Cross-sectional study.
Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted on dry human skull specimens from November 2024 to
January 2025 at the Department of Anatomy, Services Institute of Medical Sciences (SIMS), Lahore, Pakistan.
Methods: Sixty well-preserved, non-pathological adult dry human skulls of were used to measure length,
breadth, height, and indices for the specific types of palate with the help of a digital vernier caliper. Data was
collected and assessed using SPSS 25.0 for mean and standard deviation.
Results: The hard palate's mean length, breadth, and height were 40.56±3.48mm, 36.51±2.73mm, and
16.45±3.38mm, respectively. In the present study, the palatine Index indicates that 72% of the palates were
wide (Brachystaphyline), followed by 18% and 10% intermediate (Mesostaphyline), and narrow
(Leptostaphyline), respectively. According to the palatine height index, 75% of the palates were deep
(Hypsistaphyline), 20% intermediate (Orthostaphyline), and 5% were low arched (Chamestaphyline). In 79% of
the skulls, the lesser palatine foramen was present on both sides, absent in 12%, whereas in 15% of the skulls,
there were two on the left side.
Conclusion: Morphometric evaluation of the hard palate enhances our understanding of its anatomical
variations and underscores their critical role in clinical and forensic applications.

How to cite this: Bashir Y, Ayyaz H, Mahmud T, Hassan S, Shahpar L. Morphometric Analysis and Variations of the Hard Palate in Human Dry Skulls: A Cross-Sectional Study from the Punjab Region, Pakistan. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 163-167. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.876

Sleep Disturbance and Daytime Sleepiness among Undergraduate Medical Students in Islamabad: A Single-Institution Cross-Sectional Study

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To determine the prevalence of poor sleep quality and daytime sleepiness among undergraduate
medical students and to explore the association between the two scores. Additionally, to compare the sleep
quality and daytime sleepiness across gender and academic levels, and identify key factors associated with
poor sleep quality and daytime sleepiness, including BMI, screen time, smoking, and exercise.
Study Design: Cross-sectional study.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Department of Community Medicine, HBS
Medical and Dental College, Islamabad, Pakistan from 26^th April 2024 to 30^th January 2025.
Methods: A total of 330 undergraduate students were included in the study. A stratified random sampling
technique was employed. The data collection in this study consisted of a questionnaire developed through a
comprehensive review of relevant literature. The initial pool of items was derived by examining widely cited
theoretical frameworks and empirical studies on sleep disturbances and sleep quality. The questionnaire
underwent an expert review, and a pilot test was subsequently conducted with a sample of 20 participants to
refine the wording, assess item clarity, and determine internal consistency. Data were collected through a selfadministered
questionnaire in English, which was entered, managed, and analyzed using SPSS version 25.
Results: Among 330 undergraduate medical students, 64.2% were females, and the mean age was 21.47±1.776
years. The majority of medical students (71.5%) had poor sleep quality, with a mean poor sleep score of
6.73±3.328. Daytime sleepiness was prevalent among 41.5% of medical students, with a mean of 9.17±3.838. A
statistically significant association was found between sleep disturbance and daytime sleepiness (P≤0.001).
Conclusion: The study concluded that both sleep disturbance and daytime sleepiness were observed among
medical college undergraduate students, but sleep disturbance was more prevalent than daytime sleepiness. A
significant association was found between sleep quality and daytime sleepiness, with gender and academic
year identified as associated factors.

How to cite this: Zubair AA, Zubair FA, Gillani SMAHS, Jhagrah OZ. Sleep Disturbance and Daytime Sleepiness among Undergraduate Medical Students in Rawalpindi: A Single-Institution Cross-Sectional Study. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 168-177. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.917

A Prospective Cohort Study in Pediatric Care Rawalpindi to Compare the Orchidopexy with and without Sac Ligation in Terms of Post-Operative Hernia Formation

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To compare the frequency of hernia formation following orchidopexy of clinically palpable
undescended testes, regardless of whether the sac was ligated during the procedure.
Study Design: Prospective-cohort.
Place and Duration of Study: This research was conducted at the Department of Pediatric Surgery, Pak Emirates Military Hospital (PEMH), Rawalpindi, Pakistan from June 2022 to May 2023.
Methods: Eighty-six children were recruited for this study from the OPD using a non-probability consecutive
sampling technique. Half of them underwent orchidopexy in which the sac was ligated using the conventional
technique (Group A). In the other half, orchidopexy was done in which the sac was separated from the testicular
vessels and the vas deferens, but it was not ligated and only divided at the deep ring (Group B). Follow-up was
done 02, 06, 12 weeks, and 6 months after discharge, and patients were examined for post-operative hernia
formation in either group.
Results: This research showed that the mean age of children included in the study was 5.12 +3.35 years. The
results revealed that 39 (45.3%) children had right palpable undescended testes (UDT), 33 (38.4%) had left
undescended testes whereas 14 (16.3%) had bilateral disease. The mean operative time in this study was found
to be 33.31±12.26 minutes. The mean operative time in non-ligation group (27.65 ± 7.60 minutes) was
significantly reduced as compared to children in ligation group (38.97±13.44 minutes) with P-value of less than
0.001. Incidence of hernia formation was comparable in these two groups, and during the follow-up period, no
patient in either group developed hernia.
Conclusion: According to this research, it is safe to forego sac ligation during orchidopexy without increasing
the risk of post-operative hernia while also shortening the operative time.

How to cite this: Rehman MH, Ahmad A, Ahmed R, Jabbar S, Rehman H, Jaral MS. A Prospective Cohort Study in Pediatric Care Rawalpindi to Compare the Orchidopexy with and without Sac Ligation in Terms of Post-Operative Hernia Formation. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 178-183. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.667

Incidence and Mortality of Bone Cement Implantation Syndrome after Hemi Arthroplasty: A Retrospective Analysis in a Single Institute of Karachi

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To investigate the incidence and mortality associated with Bone Cement Implantation Syndrome
following cemented hemiarthroplasty for femoral neck fractures.
Study Design: Retrospective cohort study.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Department of Orthopedics, Dr. Ziauddin
Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan from 1^st January 2022 to 31^st December 2022.
Methods: Patients who underwent cemented hemiarthroplasty at the Department of Orthopedics, Dr.
Ziauddin Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan. The study included patients with complete medical records documenting
cemented hemiarthroplasty as the primary treatment for femoral neck fractures. The incidence and severity of
Bone Cement Implantation Syndrome were identified and categorized using established criteria. The
association between 30-day mortality and Bone Cement Implantation Syndrome grade was analyzed using a
two-tailed Fisher's exact test.
Results: Out of 58 patients initially reviewed, 56 were included in the final analysis, with an observed incidence
of Bone Cement Implantation Syndrome of 35.7% (20 patients). Among these, 5 patients exhibited severe Bone
Cement Implantation Syndrome (grades 2 and 3). The analysis revealed no statistically significant association
between the severity of Bone Cement Implantation Syndrome and 30-day mortality (P = 0.122).
Demographically, 80.36% of the patients were male, with a median age of 76.5 years. Comorbidities included
hypertension (64.29%) and diabetes (30.36%).
Conclusion: Our study found a notable incidence of Bone Cement Implantation Syndrome remains a critical
consideration in cemented hemiarthroplasty, its management does not significantly impact short-term
mortality. Our findings underscore the importance of vigilant perioperative care and the potential benefits of
larger Bone Cement Implantation Syndrome registries for improving patient outcomes.

How to cite this: Hassam M, Munshi N, Siddiqui AM, Baloch MDI, Arif, Azizi A. Incidence and Mortality of Bone Cement Implantation Syndrome after Hemi Arthroplasty: A Retrospective Analysis in a Single Institute of Karachi. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 184-189. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.685

Variation of Optic Nerve Types in Different Age Quartiles on Two Sides Based on Delano's Classification of Optic Nerve using Computerized Tomography: A Single Center Cross-Sectional Study in Karachi

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To understand the anatomy of the sphenoid sinus and its associated structures, especially the
variations of the optic nerve, to avoid any surgical trauma.
Study Design: Cross-sectional study.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Radiology Department, Ziauddin University,
Karachi, Pakistan from January 2017 to May 2017.
Methods: During the study, 270 participants were assessed after ruling out any sphenoid sinus (SS) abnormality
or any abnormality involving adjacent structures. The scans were performed using a Toshiba Alexion 16-slice CT
scanner. Delano's classification was used to classify the optic nerve into different types according to the
relationship between the optic nerve and the posterior paranasal sinuses. Data was analyzed on SPSS version
26. Frequencies and percentages were recorded for categorical variables. Mean and standard deviation were
reported for the continuous variables.
Result: According to the age quartiles, no significant difference was found in the distribution of classes of
different types of optic nerve according to Delano's classification on both the right and the left sides—also, Type
I optic nerve was the most frequent type bilaterally. However, there was a considerable difference in the
frequency of optic nerve occurrence on the left and right sides.
Conclusion: The preoperative analysis of optic nerve classification is necessary, and knowledge of anatomical
variations is imperative so that endoscopic sinus surgery may be planned accordingly to avoid any iatrogenic
injuries during functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS).

How to cite this: Lakhani M, Raza I, Mukhtar S, Sadiq M, Azwar S, Hassan N. Variation of Optic Nerve Types in Different Age Quartiles on Two Sides Based on Delano's Classification of Optic Nerve using Computerized Tomography: A Single Center Cross-Sectional Study in Karachi. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 190-195. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.687

Mean Platelet Volume as a Non-Invasive Marker of Liver Fibrosis in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis B: A Multicenter Study from Rawalpindi and Quetta

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To determine the mean platelet volume as a noninvasive marker of liver fibrosis in patients with
chronic hepatitis B.
Study Design: Prospective observational study.
Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted at the Department of Gastroenterology, Combined
Military Hospital (CMH), Quetta and Pak Emirates Military Hospital (PEMH), Rawalpindi, Pakistan from August
2023 to April 2024.
Methods: A total of 132 hepatitis B patients reported to the Department of Gastroenterology were included in
the study. Convenience sampling was performed. The platelet count, Mean platelet volume, and haemoglobin
level were assessed. After a Transient Elastography (Fibroscan), fibrosis and chronicity indices were compared
to the patient haematological parameter, Mean Platelet Volume, and the accuracy and consistency of
haematological values in predicting hepatic fibrosis were investigated. Version 26.0 of the Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences was used for data entry and analysis. An independent t-test was applied between
groups.
Results: Among the total of 132 patients, 86 were male and 46 were female. Subjects were separated into two
cohorts, each consisting of 66 patients matched in age and gender. Group A with fibrosis grades F0, F1, and F2
and group B with F3 and F4. The mean platelet volume was determined in each group. Group A had a Mean
Platelet Volume (10.456 + 0.922 femtolitre). Group B had a Mean Platelet Volume of (12.745+ 1.049 femtolitre).
There were statistically significant variations in Mean Platelet Volume across the groups, as shown by an
independent sample t-test (P<0.01).
Conclusion: MPV is a noninvasive indicator of liver fibrosis in chronic hepatitis B patients. We suggest that MPV
could be helpful in evaluating fibrosis in these patients. Because a stand-alone test is nonspecific concerning
other illnesses, it should not be considered for this purpose.

How to cite this: Ahmad MI, Ahmad I, Khan FR, Nasir JA, Hannan A, Nisa Q. Mean Platelet Volume as a Non-Invasive Marker of Liver Fibrosis in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis B: A Multicenter Study from Rawalpindi and Quetta. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 196-201. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.782

Prevalence of Substance use in Relation to Criminal Behavior Patterns among Prison Inmates in Karachi: A Cross-Sectional Study

Madiha Jamal, Shabana Waheed, Asma Shakoor — Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To determine the prevalence of licit and illicit substance use among male and female prisoners of
Karachi jails, and the association between substance use and the type of crime committed.
Study Design: A descriptive cross-sectional study.
Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted among male and female prisoners in Malir and Central
Jail, Karachi, Pakistan from April 2020 to September 2020.
Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 700 males and females aged 18-60 from Central and
Malir Jail, Karachi, Pakistan. The sample population was selected using a convenience sampling technique. The
prevalence and type of substance use were assessed using the WHO Questionnaire. Chi-square was applied to
identify the association between drug use and criminal profile.
Results: Male prisoners were more likely to have ever used tobacco compared with females (91.5% vs 34.0%)
followed by cannabis (55.0% vs 2.0%) and opioids (25.8% vs 2.0%). Overall, current substance use during
imprisonment was relatively less than lifetime use of substance before imprisonment. However, the types of
substance used remained unchanged. During imprisonment, Tobacco was currently the most common
substance of use among males (85.2%) and females (27%). A significant association was observed between ever
drug use and type of crime committed (P<0.001).
Conclusion: The current study demonstrated a higher prevalence of lifetime substance use compared to the
prevalence of current substance use; however, the type of drugs was not specified. However, the type of drug
use remained consistent. A predominant consumption of tobacco, cannabis, and opiates was found among
male prisoners, and high consumption of tobacco was found among female prisoners. Respectively, 95.1% and
91.6% of inmates imprisoned for drug-related crimes and unlicensed weapons were drug users.

How to cite this: Jamal M, Waheed S, Shakoor A. Prevalence of Substance use in Relation to Criminal Behavior Patterns among Prison Inmates in Karachi: A Cross-Sectional Study. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 202-210. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.899

Magnitude of Hearing Loss Concerning the Site of Tympanic Membrane Perforation: A Cross-Sectional Study at a Single Institution in Rawalpindi

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To determine the relationship between the site of tympanic membrane perforation and the
magnitude of hearing loss.
Study Design: Cross-sectional study.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Department of ENT, Combined Military Hospital,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan from 1^st August 2023 to 31^st January 2024.
Methods: Patients aged between 15 and 60 years who presented to the Ear, Nose and Throat (ENT) outdoor
department with dry tympanic membrane perforations were included in the study after obtaining informed
consent. Enrollment was done using a purposive sampling technique, irrespective of age and gender. Exclusion
criteria included profound hearing loss, actively discharging middle ears, cholesteatoma, and cognitive
impairment.
The data were collected using a structured departmental proforma. A detailed history and thorough ENT
examination were performed, followed by referral for audiological assessment. SPSS version 20 was used for
statistical analysis, and a two-tailed P-value of <0.001 was considered statistically significant.
Results: A total of 61 patients (52.45% males and 47.54% females) participated, with a mean age of 34.70 ±
11.80 years. The mean hearing loss for posterior perforation was 26.50 ± 5.61 dB, and for anterior perforation, it
was 23.47 ± 6.96 dB. The cases with multiple quadrant perforations showed a mean hearing loss of 41.15 ± 8.65
dB.
Conclusion: The study demonstrates a significant relationship between the site of tympanic membrane
perforation and hearing loss, with greater hearing loss observed in multiple quadrant and posterior-quadrant
perforations. Timely diagnosis and management of middle ear infections can help reduce the burden of hearing
loss associated with tympanic membrane perforations.

How to cite this: Alvie M, Akhtar S, Haleem U, Azhar H, Abbasi T, Malik KZ. The Magnitude of Hearing Loss Concerning the Site of Tympanic Membrane Perforation: A Cross- Sectional Study at a Single Institution in Rawalpindi. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 211-216. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.810

Neuroanatomical Alterations in the Rat Auditory Cortex Induced by Fourth and Fifth Generation Wireless Radiation Exposure: A Laboratory-Based Experimental Study

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To compare the effects of Fourth and Fifth Generation 2100 MHz and 3500 MHz) radiofrequency
electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) on cortical layer organization and granule cell necrosis in the auditory
cortex of rats.
Study Design: Laboratory-based experimental study.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Anatomy Department, Islamic International
Medical College, Rawalpindi, Pakistan from November 2023 to October 2024.
Methods: Thirty adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups (n = 10 per group).
Group A served as the control with no RF-EMR exposure. Group B was exposed to 2100 MHz Fourth Generation
(4G), and Group C to 3500 MHz Fifth Generation (5G) RF-EMR using an ADALM-PLUTO module. All exposures
were conducted for 5 hours daily over 4 weeks. Following exposure, the rats were sacrificed, and their auditory
cortices were subjected to histological analysis using Hematoxylin-Eosin staining. Cortical layer organization
and granule cell necrosis were evaluated. Necrosis was graded from 0 (no necrosis) to 4 (severe necrosis). Data
was analyzed using SPSS version 27, with a P-value ≤ 0.05 considered statistically significant.
Results: All groups showed regular cortical layering with distinct borders. Granule cell necrosis was absent in
controls, minimal in 4G (Group B), and more severe in 5G (Group C), where 10% showed severe necrosis.
Necrosis grades differed significantly among groups (P = 0.006), with 5G showing the highest neurotoxicity.
Conclusion: Compared to 4 G exposure, 5G radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation results in significant
granule cell necrosis in the auditory cortex, suggesting that higher-frequency electromagnetic radiation may
induce greater neurotoxic effects. These findings highlight the potential risks of prolonged exposure to 5G
radiation, particularly regarding neuronal integrity and brain health.

How to cite this: Haroon A, Ali S, Umar U, Farooq S, Qureshi T, Fahad T. Neuroanatomical Alterations in the Rat Auditory Cortex Induced by Fourth and Fifth Generation Wireless Radiation Exposure: A Laboratory-Based Experimental Study. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 217-222. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.847

Prediction of Preterm Birth by Second Trimester Transvaginal Ultrasound Measurement of Cervical Length. A Prospective Observational Study at a Tertiary Care Hospital

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To determine the predictive value of second-trimester transvaginal ultrasound measurement of
cervical length for preterm birth.
Study Design: Prospective observational study.
Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Pak
Emirates Military Hospital (PEMH), Rawalpindi, Pakistan, a tertiary care facility from April 2023 to September
2023.
Methods: After obtaining written informed consent, 132 pregnant women who met the selection criteria were
enrolled. All patients underwent transvaginal ultrasonographic evaluation during the 20^th to 24^th week. A
consultant gynaecologist assessed cervical length three times. The smallest measurement was noted down,
and it was further confirmed by a consultant radiologist. All patients were followed up until delivery, and
preterm birth was assessed; findings were analyzed statistically. No intervention was done during this study.
Results: The mean age of the patients was 28.5 ± 3.91 years. Cervical shortening (<2.5cm) was seen in 24
(18.2%) patients. Overall, pre-term birth occurred in 27 (20.5%) patients. In patients with cervical shortening,
preterm birth occurred in 16 (66.7%) patients. A statistically significant relation existed between cervical
shortening and preterm birth (P=0.000). The sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV of cervical shortening for
determining preterm birth were 59%, 92.5%, 66.5%, and 89.9%, respectively. The Chi-square value was 38.47,
which shows a statistically significant relationship between cervical shortening and preterm birth. In other
words, cervical is strongly associated with a higher risk of preterm birth in this population.
Conclusion: Cervical length measured by TVS during the second trimester had a moderately high predictive
value and specificity for predicting preterm birth.

How to cite this: Kousar R, Iftikhar B, Khan FS, Kousar R, Mahmood F, Shahzadi H. Prediction of Preterm Birth by Second Trimester Transvaginal Ultrasound Measurement of Cervical Length. A Prospective Observational Study at a Tertiary Care Hospital. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 223-229. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.850

Association between Maternal Obesity and Large for Gestational Age Infants in Pre- Eclampsia: A Prospective Cohort Study, Bahawalpur

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To determine the association between maternal obesity and large infants in pre-eclampsia.
Study Design: Prospective, cohort study.
Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,
Combined Military Hospital, Bahawalpur, Pakistan from 11^th January 2020 to 10^th July 2020.
Methods: Overall, 94 pre-eclamptic women of 18-35 years of age with a single gravidity of >28 gestational age
were included. Women who were identified with diabetes, chronic high blood pressure, and alcoholism were
excluded. All women with a BMI >30kg/m2 should be in group A, and those with a BMI 2 ≤30 kg/m2 in group B.
Cases were tracked until delivery, and productive variables like a large for gestational age infant were noted. A
numerical breakdown was executed using SPSS version 20.0. Age, gestational Age, parity, gravidity, and BMI
were described as average and standard deviation. Occurrence and ratio were considered for qualitative
variables like socioeconomic status (poor/middle/upper), and large for gestational age newborns (yes/no) in
respective groups. Outcome transformers like Age, gestational Age, parity, gravidity, and socioeconomic status
were precisely stratified, and post-stratification chi-square was used to observe the result on consequence. P value ≤0.05 was measured as substantial. Relative risk was calculated, and >1 was taken as significant.
Results: The average age of females in Group A was 27.06±3.15 years, and in Group B, it was 27.34±3.07 years.
Widely, the patients 76 (80.85%) were between 18 and 25 years of Age. The frequency of LGA in Group A
(exposed group) was 21 (44.68%), whereas in Group B (unexposed group), it was 9 (19.15%), which showed a P value of 0.013.
Conclusion: This research determined that maternal obesity in pre-eclampsia is linked with higher chances of
large for gestational age newborns.

How to cite this: Nisa Z, Iqbal S, Mirza Ahmad S, Gul R, Parveen S, Wasim Z. Association between Maternal Obesity and Large for Gestational Age Infants in Pre-Eclampsia: A Prospective Cohort Study, Bahawalpur. Life and Science. 2025; 6(1): 230-235. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.637

Comparative Effectiveness of Levofloxacin-Based Triple Regimen and Standard Clarithromycin-Based Triple Regimen in Eradication of Helicobacter Pylori - Insights from A Peripheral Hospital-Based Study

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To compare the effectiveness of a Levofloxacin-based triple regimen with the standard
Clarithromycin-based triple regimen in eradicating gastric Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection.
Study Design: Quasi-experimental study.
Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted at the Department of Medicine, Combined Military
Hospital (CMH), Sibbi, Pakistan from January 2021 to August 2022.
Methods: A total of two hundred and sixty patients (n=260), both male and female, diagnosed with H. pylori
infection, were enrolled. Patients who had used antibiotics within the past four weeks or proton pump
inhibitors within the past two weeks were excluded to avoid interference with treatment efficacy. Participants
were randomly assigned to two groups: The Levofloxacin Group received levofloxacin, amoxicillin, and
omeprazole, while the Clarithromycin Group was treated with clarithromycin, amoxicillin, and omeprazole,
each regimen lasting 14 days. After completing the eradication therapy, all patients were assessed for H. pylori
eradication using the fecal antigen test.
Results: The median age of the participants was 30.00 years (26.00–36.00). Of the patients, 158 (60.8%) were
female and 102 (39.2%) were male. Post-treatment testing revealed that 209 patients (80.4%) tested negative,
indicating successful eradication, while 51 patients (19.6%) remained positive for fecal H. pylori antigen test. In
the Clarithromycin Group, 96 patients (73.8%) tested negative, compared to 113 patients (86.9%) in the
Levofloxacin Group, showing a statistically significant difference (P = 0.008).
Conclusion: The Levofloxacin-based triple therapy regimen proved significantly more effective in eradicating
Helicobacter pylori infection than the standard Clarithromycin-based triple therapy regimen, suggesting its
potential as a valuable first-line alternative, particularly in regions with high Clarithromycin resistance.

How to cite this: Ahmad I, Bano K, Shabbir K, Razzaq K, Khan RSA, Iqbal Q. Comparative Effectiveness of Levofloxacin Based Triple Regimen and Standard Clarithromycin Based Triple Regimen in Eradication of Helicobacter Pylori - Insights from A Peripheral Hospital- Based Study. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 236-241. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.341

The Perception of Smile Arc and Buccal Corridor in Medical and Dental Undergraduate Students of Peshawar, Pakistan: A Descriptive Cross-sectional Study

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To compare smile aesthetics perceptions, focusing on components such as smile arc and buccal
corridor, between pre-clinical medical and dental students.
Study Design: A descriptive cross-sectional study.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Department of Medical and Dental Education for
undergraduate students of Peshawar Medical and Dental College, Peshawar, Pakistan from June 2023 to
January 2024.
Methods: Using Cochran's formula, a descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted on 196 participants
using a non-probability consecutive sampling technique. Undergraduate medical and dental students aged 21
to 28 from specific colleges in Pakistan were included. Participants evaluated digitally altered images of a
female undergraduate student's smile using a 7-point Likert scale. An independent t-test was applied to
compare perceptions among the two groups.
Results: Among 196 participants, 143 (72.96%) were female, and 53 (27.04%) were male, with a mean age of
25.0±1.96 years. Dental students were exclusively comprised of females, while medical students had a higher
male proportion (54.08%). A comparison of buccal corridor perception between pre-clinical medical and dental
students showed that dental students generally rated wider corridors less favorably. Significant differences
were observed at 5 mm and 15 mm corridors (P=0.017 and P=0.044, respectively). A significant difference was
observed for the widest corridor (25 mm) (P=0.001). A comparison of smile arc perception between pre-clinical
medical and dental students revealed no significant difference in the ideal smile arc (P=0.412). However,
significant differences were found for the flat smile arc (P=0.005). No significant difference was observed for
the reverse smile arc (P=0.307).
Conclusion: Preclinical medical and dental students have different perceptions of smile aesthetics, particularly
regarding buccal corridor width and smile arc.

How to cite this: Naz S, Adil S, Islam Z, Raza HA, Khan S, Ahmad W. The Perception of Smile Arc and Buccal Corridor in Medical and Dental Undergraduate Students of Peshawar, Pakistan: A Descriptive Cross-sectional Study. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 242-247. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.682

Comparison of the Incidence of Fragmented QRS Complex on Electrocardiogram in Patients with Connective Tissue Disorders and Healthy Individuals

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To compare the incidence of fragmented QRS complex in electrocardiograms in patients with
connective tissue disorders compared to healthy individuals.
Study Design: Cross-sectional comparative study.
Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted at the Department of Medicine, Combined Military
Hospital (CMH), Multan, Pakistan from February 2024 to July 2024.
Methods: A total of 30 patients aged≥ 18 years and diagnosed with various connective tissue disorders were
recruited in the study group (named CTD group). Another 30 individuals aged≥ 18 years or older without any
known connective tissue disorders were added to the Control group. A standard 12-lead electrocardiogram was
performed for each participant at rest, and the incidences of fragmented QRS complexes were recorded. The
primary outcome of the study was to compare the incidence of fragmented QRS complex in patients with
connective tissue disorders compared to healthy individuals by applying the Chi-square test. Results in the CTD
group were also stratified by using independent t-tests and a Chi-square test for continuous and categorical
variables, respectively. A P<0.05 is considered significant in all the comparisons.
Results: The mean age of study participants was 41.88±8.7. Female patients comprised 70% of the study
population, and males comprised 30%. The results of the primary outcomes of the study showed that a
significantly higher number of patients had a fragmented QRS complex in the CTD group compared to the
Control group (56.66% vs 6.66%, respectively, P=˂0.0001). The stratification of the incidences with the clinical
variables in the CTD group established its significant association with age (P=0.024) and duration of the disease
(P=0.048).
Conclusion: A significantly higher incidence of fragmented QRS complexes is present in patients with
connective tissue disorders compared to the normal population.

How to cite this: Wajid H, Barki WH, Batool S, Hashmi Z, Shafiq A, Pirzada HZ. Comparison of the Incidence of Fragmented QRS Complex on Electrocardiogram in Patients with Connective Tissue Disorders and Healthy Individuals. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 248-254. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.796

Unveiling Sociocultural Determinants of Paternal Postpartum Depression in a Tertiary Care Setting of Islamabad: A Qualitative Approach

Mishal Fatima, Nida Ayub, Nasreen Rafiq — Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: Postpartum depression in fathers has gained attention as a critical mental health concern; however,
limited research exists on its sociocultural determinants, especially in Pakistan. This study aimed to explore the
sociocultural factors that contribute negatively to postpartum depression in Pakistani fathers by highlighting
the culture-specific risk factors and addressing gaps in the literature.
Study Design: This qualitative study investigated the sociocultural factors determining postpartum depression
in fathers within the Pakistani context.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out at the Department of Clinical Psychology, Shifa Tameere-Millat University, Islamabad, Pakistan from March 2022 to February 2023.
Methods: Using convenience sampling, semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with 15 fathers
who experience the mood related symptoms of postpartum depression after the child birth. Thematic analysis,
as outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006), was employed to identify recurring patterns and themes.
Results: The findings revealed themes such as societal expectations of fatherhood (e.g, pressure to be the sole
provider), rigid gender norms (discouraging emotional expression), limited social support, stigmatization of
paternal mental health, cultural stigma surrounding mental health, preventing help-seeking, challenges in
marital relationships, and financial stress, patriarchal responsibilities. These interconnected factors created a
cyclical burden and significantly affect the mental health of fathers, exacerbating the postpartum phase
depression.
Conclusion: The study underscores the need for culturally adapted interventions, such as community-based
psychoeducation programs targeting stigma reduction and inclusive paternal support networks. To support
paternal mental health in low-resource settings, future research should quantify these determinants. The
findings advocate for community-based initiatives aimed at reducing stigma and establishing paternal support
networks. Policymakers should prioritize father-inclusive mental health programs, while future research must
quantify these determinants to inform scalable solutions in low-resource settings.

How to cite this: Fatima M, Ayub N, Rafiq N. Unveiling Sociocultural Determinants of Paternal Postpartum Depression in a Tertiary Care Setting of Islamabad: A Qualitative Approach. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 255-260. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.646

Difference in Sleep Apnea Pattern According to Body Mass Index (BMI): A Cohort Study in a Tertiary Care Center-Rawalpindi

Karamat Ali, Attia Khaliq, Amir Rashid, Hassan Raza — Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To evaluate the prevalence of Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) using polysomnography (PSG) in
symptomatic Pakistani patients and assess its association with demographic factors (age, sex, BMI) and obesity.
Study Design: Retrospective cohort study.
Place and Duration of Study: This study was conducted at the Department of Pulmonology and Sleep Studies,
Pak Emirates Military Hospital (PEMH), Rawalpindi, Pakistan from April 2021 to April 2023.
Methods: A total of 577 clinically suspected Obstructive Sleep Apnea patients underwent sleep studies in our
sleep study departments using Convenience Sampling. Polysomnography (PSG) was carried out with the Philips
Respironics Alice Night One device using 1 RIP effort belt and a pressure-based flow sensor. Heart rate, oxygen
saturation, apnea (Mixed, Central, Obstructive), hypopnea episodes, and Apnea/hypopnea index (AHI) were
recorded in all individuals. AHI > 5 was cut off for diagnosis of OSA, as all symptomatic patients were included in
this study. The patients with AHI>5 were further divided into three groups: Mild Apnea/hypopnea index (AHI 5-
15), Moderate Apnea/hypopnea index (AHI 15-30), and Severe (AHI >30). Chi-square tests were used for the
analysis of data.
Results: 577 clinically suspected OSA patients were included in this study, among whom 379 (65.7%) were
males and 198 (34.3%) were females. The Mean age of patients was 50.23 (SD- 12.56), and the mean BMI was
33.06 (SD -6.52). There was no significant relationship between gender and obesity seen in our study. Patients
with higher BMI exhibited a significant positive correlation (P-value <0.001).
Conclusion: Higher BMI showed a direct relationship with the severity of obstructive sleep apnea, manifested
by a higher apnea hypopnea index and increased duration and severity of desaturation.

How to cite this: Ali K, Arshad AA, Imran M, Khaliq A, Rashid A, Raza H. Difference in Sleep Apnea Pattern According to Body Mass Index (BMI): A Cohort Study in a Tertiary Care Center-Rawalpindi. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 261-265. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.414

Impact of Capping Agent Incorporation on pH Stability of Silver Diamine Fluoride: An in Vitro Analysis

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Objective: To determine the chemical stability by evaluating time-dependent pH changes in 38% silver diamine
fluoride with or without incorporating different concentrations of tannic acid and glutathione as capping
agents.
Study Design: Experimental, in vitro study.
Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia from January 2021 to April 2022.
Methods: Tannic acid and Glutathione-modified silver diamine fluoride solutions were prepared by
incorporating tannic acid or Glutathione at different concentrations (5,10,15% w/v) into silver diamine fluoride.
pH changes in the solutions were measured at different time points: from 1 hour after the bottles were opened
to day 90.
Results: The pH of 38% silver diamine fluoride from baseline till day-90 ranged between 7.73±0.02 and
7.69±0.01. The incorporation of tannic acid and glutathione resulted in a significant increase in the pH of the
silver diamine fluoride solution. In tannic acid-modified silver diamine fluoride, the highest 90-day pH was
shown by silver diamine fluoride + 5% tannic acid (w/v) (9.00±0.01), while in the glutathione-modified silver
diamine fluoride, silver diamine fluoride + 15% Glutathione (w/v) had the highest 90-day pH (9.80±0.02).
Repeated measures analysis of variance showed a statistically significant difference between the groups' pH
values. A pairwise comparison showed significant differences in the pH of all the possible pairs at all-time points
(P<0.05), except the pairs silver diamine fluoride + 15% tannic acid (w/v) and silver diamine fluoride + 15%
glutathione (w/v) after the 1st hour and day 1 (P > 0.05).
Conclusion: Silver diamine fluoride and tannic acid/glutathione-modified silver diamine fluoride solutions
remain stable for up to 90 days. Capping agent incorporation significantly increases the pH of silver diamine
fluoride, thereby enhancing its long-term stability and shelf life.

Relationship between Cardiovascular Diseases and Periodontal Disease – A Systematic Review

Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

To review and explore the published literature to establish an association between cardiovascular diseases and
periodontal ailments, identifying shared risk factors, examining potential mechanisms, and assessing the
clinical impact of this association. The systematic review was conducted at Army Medical College, National
University of Medical Sciences, Rawalpindi, Pakistan from April 2023 to September 2023. A literature search
was carried out following PRISMA guidelines using suitable databases, such as ScienceDirect and PubMed, by
entering keywords, e.g., 'Periodontal disease and CVDs', 'Periodontal disease and heart disease', 'Periodontitis
and CVDs', and 'Periodontitis and heart disease', to find relevant articles published between 2014 and 2023, as
per the set inclusion and exclusion criteria. Shortlisted articles were assessed by four reviewers, followed by
closer scrutiny by an additional two reviewers to ensure their suitability for final inclusion. Finally, a Qualitative
assessment of included studies was done to minimize the risk of bias. Of the 97 studies found, only 10 (10.31%)
met the inclusion criteria. The common tests run to identify periodontal diseases were periodontal pocket
depth, complete visual oral examination, including radiograph examinations, and plaque index monitoring. To
assess patients' cardiovascular health, polymerase chain reactions (PCRs), blood picture, Platelet function
tests, blood pressure measurement, and testing for biomarkers were conducted. Out of the 10 included
articles, 3 showed low bias, 4 articles showed medium bias, and 3 showed high bias. This systematic review
revealed a positive correlation between, cardiovascular diseases, and periodontal health. Collaboration
between dental and cardiovascular experts, coupled with advanced research methods, is essential for a
profound understanding of these connections, thus enabling tailored interventions, offering significant
improvements in both cardiovascular and periodontal health.

How to cite this: Gul H, Imtiaz A, Sharif S, Ali A, Rehman S, Bashir A. Relationship between Cardiovascular Diseases and Periodontal Disease – A Systematic Review. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 274-283. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.681

Artificial Intelligence in Medicine: Transforming The Future of Healthcare

Tashfeen Alam Jan, Shumaila Naz — Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

The rate of development in artificial intelligence (AI) technologies has brought revolutionary transformations
across the healthcare sector. The advancements especially impacted the manner in which the diagnosis,
treatment, and management of diseases are undertaken with a growing emphasis laid on optimizing clinical
workflow and patient care. Machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) technologies have proved invaluable
for the analysis of complex datasets, supporting early diagnosis and optimizing treatment protocols. AI
showcased tremendous promise in a plethora of applications, such as the accurate analysis of medical imagery,
the personalization of therapies through the tailor-made dosing of medicines, predictive analysis in forecasting
the course of the disease, and the assistance of patients and clinicians by deploying virtual health tools.
Moreover, the increasing application of AI in healthcare has also boosted access to quality healthcare,
particularly in underserved populations. The following review also explores the ethical, legislative, and
regulatory issues related to the application of AI in medicine, reiterating the need for protection of the data,
transparency, and equitable access. With careful implementation that respects these boundaries, AI holds the
potential to significantly enhance global healthcare delivery. Despite these benefits, integrating AI into
healthcare systems raises important ethical, legal, and regulatory concerns. Ensuring data privacy, promoting
algorithm transparency, and maintaining fairness in AI-driven healthcare solutions are key concerns.
Addressing these challenges is vital to building trust and ensuring that AI technologies benefit all populations
fairly. With responsible and ethical implementation, AI holds immense potential to transform global healthcare
delivery and improve patient outcomes on a large scale.

How to cite this: Jan TA, Naz S. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine: Transforming The Future of Healthcare. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 284-291. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.904

Tuberculosis and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in the SP-A Gene

Urooj Subhan, Ezza Binte Tariq, Farah Deeba, Sidra Younis — Mon, 07 Apr 2025 00:00:00 +0500

Tuberculosis (TB), is a primary global health concern, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). Pakistan is
ranked 5th among highly prevalent TB countries. Susceptibility to TB is affected by several biological variables,
including age, gender, host genetics, and host immunity. Among these, host genetics is a key factor because it
not only affects the probability of TB susceptibility but also aggravates its clinical manifestations.
Understanding the contribution of host genetics in the protection, proneness, and progression of TB is of
paramount importance. The host's innate immune system offers protective genes that promote uptake and
clearance of MTB and detrimental genes that promote survival and progression of MTB. Surfactant protein A
(SP-A) is an essential constituent of innate immunity involved in the host defense against various pathogens,
particularly MTB. SP-A acts as a bridge between MTB and macrophages as it interacts with the glycoprotein
located on the surface of MTB and mannose receptors present on the surface of alveolar macrophages,
consequently enhancing the engulfment of MTB. This gene is also important in LTBI as it is involved in the
progression of LTBI to active TB. A variety of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are in the exonic and
intronic regions of SP-A gene that may affect its expression hence MTB uptake into macrophages. SP-A
polymorphisms have been investigated in various diseases but not specifically for TB and LTBI in the Pakistani
population. This review is aimed at summarizing existing literature on SP-A gene polymorphisms and their
impact on SP-A gene expression in pulmonary as well as extrapulmonary disorders. This study will assist in
choosing candidate polymorphisms that can be further investigated in TB and LTBI patients from the Pakistani
population. Total of 17 Studies were identified reporting 79 SPA gene polymorphisms including rs1059047,
rs1136450, rs1059049, rs1059054, rs4253527, rs1136452, rs1914663, rs1059225, rs17880809, rs1965708,
rs17886395, rs1059046, rs17879335, rs17881720 in pulmonary and extra pulmonary disorders. Conclusion:
We conclude that rs1059047 is most commonly studied SNP that has a significant effect on expression of SP-A
gene and is an appropriate candidate to be investigated in LTBI and active TB.

How to cite this: Subhan U, Tariq EB, Deeba F, Younis S. Tuberculosis and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in SP-A Gene. Life and Science. 2025; 6(2): 292-303. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.494